When the main points of your speech center on ideas that are more distinct from one another, a

topical organization style may be engaged. In a topical speech, main points are developed

separately and are generally connected together within the introduction and conclusion. In other

words, the topical style is crafted around main points and sub-points that are mutually exclusive

but related to one another by virtue of the thesis. It makes sense to use the topical style when

elements are connected to one another because of their relationship to the whole. A topical speech

about the composition of a newspaper company can be seen in the following textbox. The main points

are linked together by the fact that they are all a part of the same business. Although they are

related in that way, the topical style illustrates the ways in which the four different departments

function apart from one another. In this example, the Oprah Winfrey (Chronological Arrangement)

Thesis: Oprah’s career can be understood by four key, interconnected life stages. I. Oprah’s

childhood was spent in rural Mississippi, where she endured sexual abuse from family members. II.

Oprah’s early career was characterized by stints on local radio and television networks in

Nashville and Chicago. III. Oprah’s tenure as host of the Oprah Winfrey Show began in 1986 and

lasted until 2011, a period of time marked by much success. IV. Oprah’s most recent media venture

is OWN: The Oprah Winfrey Network, which plays host to a variety of television shows including

Oprah’s Next Chapter.
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topical style is a good fit because the four departments are equally important to the function of

the newspaper company.
spatial
Another way to organize the points of a speech is through a spatial speech, which arranges main

points according to their physical and geographic relationships. The spatial style is an especially

useful organization style when the main point’s importance is derived from its location or

directional focus. In other words, when the scene or the composition is a central aspect of the

main points, the spatial style is an appropriate way to deliver key ideas. Things can be described

from top to bottom, inside to outside, left to right, north to south, and so on. Importantly,

speakers using a spatial style should offer commentary about the placement of the main points as

they move through the speech, alerting audience members to the location changes. For instance, a

speech about The University of Georgia might be arranged spatially; in this example, the spatial

organization frames the discussion in terms of the campus layout. The spatial style is fitting

since the differences in architecture and uses of space are related to particular geographic areas,

making location a central organizing factor. As such, the spatial style highlights these location

differences.
comparative
When you need to discuss the similarities and differences between two or more things, a comparative

organizational pattern can be employed. In comparative speeches, speakers may choose to compare

things a couple different ways. First, you could compare two or more things as whole (e.g., discuss

all traits of an apple and then all traits of an orange). Second, you could compare these things

element by element (e.g., color of each, smell of each, AND taste of each). Some topics that are

routinely spoken about comparatively include different cultures, different types of transportation,

and even different types of coffee. A comparative speech outline about eastern and western cultures

could look like this. Composition of a Newspaper Company (Topical Arrangement) Thesis: The

newspaper has four primary departments. I. The advertising department sells display advertisements

to local and national businesses. II. The editorial department produces the written content of the

newspaper, including feature stories. III. The production department lays out the pages and manages

pre-press work such as distilling the pages and processing colors. IV. The business department

processes payments from advertisers, employee paperwork, and the bi-weekly payroll. University of

Georgia (Spatial Arrangement) Thesis: The University of Georgia is arranged into four distinct

sections, which are characterized by architectural and disciplinary differences. I. In North

Campus, one will find the University’s oldest building, a sprawling tree-lined quad, and the famous

Arches, all of which are nestled against Athens’ downtown district. II. In West Campus, dozens of

dormitories provide housing for the University’s large undergraduate population and students can

regularly be found lounging outside or at one of the dining halls. III. In East Campus, students

delight in newly constructed, modern buildings and enjoy the benefits of the University’s health

center, recreational facilities, and science research buildings. IV. In South Campus, pharmacy,

veterinary, and biomedical science students traverse newly constructed parts of campus featuring

well-kept landscaping and modern architecture. Eastern vs. Western Culture (Comparison Arrangement)

Thesis: There are a variety of differences between Eastern and Western cultures. I. Eastern

cultures tend to be more collectivistic. II. Western cultures tend to be more individualistic. III.

Eastern cultures tend to treat health issues holistically. IV. Western cultures tend to treat

health issues more acutely.
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In this type of speech, the list of comparisons, which should be substantiated with further

evidence, could go on for any number of main points. The speech could also compare how two or more

things are more alike than one might think. For instance, a speaker could discuss how singers

Madonna and Lady Gaga share many similarities both in aesthetic style and in their music.
problem-solution
Sometimes it is necessary to share a problem and a solution with an audience. In cases like these,

the problem-solution speech is an appropriate way to arrange the main points of a speech. One

familiar example of speeches organized in this way is the political speeches that presidential

hopefuls give in the United States. Often, candidates will begin their speech by describing a

problem created by or, at the very least, left unresolved by the incumbent. Once they have

established their view of the problem, they then go on to flesh out their proposed solution. The

problem-solution style is especially useful when the speaker wants to convince the audience that

they should take action in solving some problem. A political candidate seeking office might frame a

speech using the problem-solution style (sse texbox).
The difference between what we do and what we are capable of doing would suffice to solve most of

the world’s problems.
~ Mahatma Gandhi
This example illustrates the way in which a problem-solution oriented speech can be used to

identify both a general problem (energy crisis) and a specific problem (incumbent’s lack of

action). Moreover, this example highlights two kinds of solutions: a general solution and a

solution that is dependent on the speaker’s involvement. The problem-solution speech is especially

appropriate when the speaker desires to promote a particular solution as this offers audience

members a way to become involved. Whether you are able to offer a specific solution or not, key to

the problem-solution speech is a clear description of both the problem and the solution with clear

links drawn between the two. In other words, the speech should make specific connections between

the problem and how the solution can be engaged to solve it.
causal
Similar to a problem-solution speech, a causal speech informs audience members about causes and

effects that have already happened. In other words, a causal organization style first addresses

some cause and then shares what effects resulted. A causal speech can be particularly effective

when the speaker wants to share the relationship between two things, like the creation of a vaccine

to help deter disease. An example of how a causal speech about a shingles vaccine might be designed

follows:
Presidential Candidate’s Speech (Problem-Solution Arrangement) Thesis: The US energy crisis can be

solved by electing me as president since I will devote resources to the production of renewable

forms of energy. I. The United States is facing an energy crisis because we cannot produce enough

energy ourselves to sustain the levels of activity needed to run the country. (problem) II. The

current administration has failed to invest enough resources in renewable energy practices.

(problem) III. We can help create a more stable situation if we work to produce renewable forms of

energy within the United States. (solution) IV. If you vote for me, I will ensure that renewable

energy creation is a priority. (solution) Shingles Speech (Cause-Effect Arrangement) Thesis: The

prevalence of the disease shingles led to the invention of a vaccine. I. Shingles is a disease that

causes painful, blistering rashes in up to one million Americans every year. (cause) II. In 2006, a

vaccine for shingles was licensed in the United States and has been shown to reduce the likelihood

that people over 60 years old will get shingles. (effect)
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As the example illustrates, the basic components of the causal speech are the cause and the effect.

Such an organizational style is useful when a speaker needs to share the results of a new program,

discuss how one act led to another, or discuss the positive/negative outcomes of taking some

action.
Every choice you make has an end result.
~ Zig Ziglar
Choosing an organizational style is an important step in the speechwriting process. As you

formulate the purpose of your speech and generate the main points that you will need to include,

selecting an appropriate organizational style will likely become easier. The topical, spatial,

causal, comparative and chronological methods of arrangement may be better suited to informative

speeches, whereas the refutation pattern may work well for a persuasive speech. Additionally,

Chapter 16 offers additional organization styles suited for persuasive speeches, such as the

refutation speech and Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (Monroe, 1949). Next, we will look at statements

that help tie all of your points together and the formal mode of organizing a speech by using

outlines.
connecting your main points
Since main points are discrete and interconnected ideas, and since every speech contains more than

one main point, it is necessary to strategically make connections between one point and another. To

link the ideas of your speech, you will need to develop signposts, “words and gestures that allow

you to move smoothly from one idea to the next throughout your speech, showing relationships

between ideas and emphasizing important points” (Beebe & Beebe, 2005, p. 204). There are several

ways to incorporate signposts into your speech, and it is important to do so since these small

signals keep listeners engaged and informed about where you are in the speech. Transitional

statements, internal previews, and summaries are all signposts that can help keep your speech

moving along.
If you cry ‘forward’, you must without fail make plain in what direction to go.
~ Anton Chekhov
One way to connect points is to include transitional statements. Transitional statements are

phrases or sentences that lead from one distinct-but-connected idea to another. They are used to

alert audiences to the fact that you are getting ready to discuss something else. When moving from

one point to another, your transition may just be a word or short phrase. For instance, you might

say “next,” “also,” or “moreover.” You can also enumerate your speech points and signal transitions

by starting each point with “First,” “Second,” “Third,” et cetera. The textbox above offers a short

list of transitional statements that are helpful when you need to show similarity or difference

between the points. You might also incorporate non-verbal transitions, such as brief pauses or a

movement across the stage. Pausing to look at your audience, stepping out from behind a podium, or

even raising or lowering the rate of your voice can signal to audience members that you are

transitioning.
Another way to incorporate signposts into your speech is by offering internal previews within your

speech. Internal previews, like the name implies, lay out what will occur during your speech. They

tell the audience what to expect. Because audience members cannot flip back and forth between

pages, internal previews help keep them on track and aware of what to be listening for and what to

remember. Internal previews are similar to the preview statements you will learn about in the

chapter on introductions and conclusions (Chapter 9), except that they appear within the

Transitional Statements to Show Similarity and Difference To Show Similarity Between Points: ?

“Similarly” ? “In the same way” ? “Also” ? “Likewise” ? “In other words” To Show Difference Between

Points: ? “However” ? “Unlike the last point” ? “On the other hand” ? “Conversely” ? “In

opposition” ? “Another view is that”
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body of your speech and are more small-scale than the broad preview you should provide at the

beginning of your speech. In general, internal previews are longer than transitional statements. If

you were giving a problem-solution speech, you might include a variation of this internal preview:

“Now that I have described the problems, let’s now discuss some ways that we can solve these

issues.” The internal preview offers a natural segue from problems to solutions and makes audience

members aware that another point is about to be made.
When speeches are longer than a few minutes and include complex ideas and information, speakers

often include summaries within the body of their speech. Summaries provide a recap of what has

already been said, making it more likely that audiences will remember the points that they hear

again. Additionally, summaries can be combined with internal previews to alert audience members

that the next point builds on those that they have already heard.
The speaker below has just finished discussing several reasons trout habitats need federal

protection, and next he will discuss some ways that audience members can agitate for government

action on these issues. His combined internal preview and summary would look something like this:
So, in review, trout habitats need federal protection because they bear a large pollution burden,

they mostly exist on private property, and they are indicators of other environmental health

issues. Next, I will discuss some ways that you can encourage the federal government to protect

these habitats
In this example, the speaker first reminds audience members of what he has already addressed and

then tells them what he will talk about next. By repeating the main points in summary fashion, the

speaker gives audience members another opportunity to consider his main ideas.
Good communication does not mean that you have to speak in perfectly formed sentences and

paragraphs. It isn’t about slickness. Simple and clear go a long way.
~ John Kotter
outlining your speech
Most speakers and audience members would agree that an organized speech is both easier to present

as well as more persuasive. Public speaking teachers especially believe in the power of organizing

your speech, which is why they encourage (and often require) that you create an outline for your

speech. Outlines, or textual arrangements of all the various elements of a speech, are a very

common way of organizing a speech before it is delivered. Most extemporaneous speakers keep their

outlines with them during the speech as a way to ensure that they do not leave out any important

elements and to keep them on track. Writing an outline is also important to the speechwriting

process since doing so forces the speakers to think about the main points and sub-points, the

examples they wish to include, and the ways in which these elements correspond to one another. In

short, the outline functions both as an organization tool and as a reference for delivering a

speech.
outline types
There are two types of outlines. The first outline you will write is called the preparation

outline. Also called a working, practice, or rough outline, the preparation outline is used to work

through the various components of your speech in an inventive format. Stephen E. Lucas (2004) put

it simply: “The preparation outline is just what its name implies—an outline that helps you prepare

the speech” (p. 248). When writing the preparation outline, you should focus on finalizing the

purpose and thesis statements, logically ordering your main points, deciding where supporting

material should be included, and refining the overall organizational pattern of your speech. As you

write the preparation outline, you may find it necessary to rearrange your points or to add or

subtract supporting material. You may also realize that some of your main points are sufficiently

supported while others are lacking. The final draft of your preparation outline should include full

sentences, making up a complete script of your entire speech. In most cases, however, the

preparation outline is reserved for planning purposes only and is translated into a speaking

outline before you deliver the speech.
A speaking outline is the outline you will prepare for use when delivering the speech. The speaking

outline is much more succinct than the preparation outline and includes brief phrases or words that

remind the speakers of the points they need to make, plus supporting material and signposts (Beebe

& Beebe, 2005). The words or phrases used on the speaking outline should briefly encapsulate all of

the information needed to prompt the speaker to accurately deliver the speech. Although some cases

call for reading a speech verbatim from the full-sentence outline, in most cases speakers will

simply refer to their
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speaking outline for quick reminders and to ensure that they do not omit any important information.

Because it uses just words or short phrases, and not full sentences, the speaking outline can

easily be transferred to index cards that can be referenced during a speech.
outline structure
Because an outline is used to arrange all of the elements of your speech, it makes sense that the

outline itself has an organizational hierarchy and a common format. Although there are a variety of

outline styles, generally they follow the same pattern. Main ideas are preceded by Roman numerals

(I, II, III, etc.). Sub-points are preceded by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.), then Arabic

numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.), and finally lowercase letters (a, b, c, etc.). Each level of

subordination is also differentiated from its predecessor by indenting a few spaces. Indenting

makes it easy to find your main points, sub-points, and the supporting points and examples below

them. Since there are three sections to your speech—introduction, body, and conclusion—your outline

needs to include all of them. Each of these sections is titled and the main points start with Roman

numeral I.
In addition to these formatting suggestions, there are some additional elements that should be

included at the beginning of your outline: the title, topic, specific purpose statement, and thesis

statement. These elements are helpful to you, the speechwriter, since they remind you what,

specifically, you are trying to accomplish in your speech. They are also helpful to anyone reading

and assessing your outline since knowing what you want to accomplish will determine how they

perceive the elements included in your outline. Additionally, you should write out the transitional

statements that you will use to alert audiences that you are moving from one point to another.

These are included in parentheses between main points. At the end of the outlines, you should

include bibliographic information for any outside resources you mention during the speech. These

should be cited using whatever citations style your professor requires. The textbox entitled

“Outline Formatting Guide” provides an example of the appropriate outline format.
If you do not change direction, you may end up where you are heading.
~ Lao Tzu
preparation outline
This chapter contains the preparation and speaking outlines for a short speech the author of this

chapter gave about how small organizations can work on issues related to climate change (see

appendices). In this example, the title, specific purpose, thesis, and list of visual aids precedes

the speech. Depending on your instructor’s requirements, you may need to include these details plus

additional information. It is also a good idea to keep these details at the top of your document as

you write the speech since they will help keep you on track to developing an organized speech that

is in line with your specific purpose and helps prove your thesis. At the end of the chapter, in

Appendix A, you can find a full length example of a Preparation (Full Sentence) Outline
Outline Formatting Guide Title: Organizing Your Public Speech Topic: Organizing public speeches

Specific Purpose Statement: To inform listeners about the various ways in which they can organize

their public speeches. Thesis Statement: A variety of organizational styles can used to organize

public speeches. Introduction Paragraph that gets the attention of the audience, establishes

goodwill with the audience, states the purpose of the speech, and previews the speech and its

structure. (Transition) Body I. Main point A. Sub-point B. Sub-point C. Sub-point 1. Supporting

point 2. Supporting point (Transition) II. Main point A. Sub-point 1. Supporting point a. Example

b. Example 2. Supporting point B. Sub-point (Transition) Conclusion Paragraph that prepares the

audience for the end of the speech, presents any final appeals, and summarizes and wraps up the

speech. Bibliography
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speaking outline
In Appendix B, the Preparation Outline is condensed into just a few short key words or phrases that

will remind speakers to include all of their main points and supporting information. The

introduction and conclusion are not included since they will simply be inserted from the

Preparation Outline. It is easy to forget your catchy attention-getter or final thoughts you have

prepared for your audience, so it is best to include the full sentence versions even in your

speaking outline.
using the speaking outline
Once you have prepared the outline and are almost ready to give your speech, you should decide how

you want to format your outline for presentation. Many speakers like to carry a stack of papers

with them when they speak, but others are more comfortable with a smaller stack of index cards with

the outline copied onto them. Moreover, speaking instructors often have requirements for how you

should format the speaking outline. Whether you decide to use index cards or the printed outline,

here are a few tips. First, write large enough so that you do not have to bring the cards or pages

close to your eyes to read them. Second, make sure you have the cards/pages in the correct order

and bound together in some way so that they do not get out of order. Third, just in case the

cards/pages do get out of order (this happens too often!), be sure that you number each in the top

right corner so you can quickly and easily get things organized. Fourth, try not to fiddle with the

cards/pages when you are speaking. It is best to lay them down if you have a podium or table in

front of you. If not, practice reading from them in front of a mirror. You should be able to look

down quickly, read the text, and then return to your gaze to the audience.
Any intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex… It takes a touch of genius – and a

lot of courage to move in the opposite direction.
~ Albert Einstein
conclusion
If you have been using this chapter to guide you through the organizational stages of writing your

speech, you have likely discovered that getting organized is very challenging but also very

rewarding. Like cleaning up a messy kitchen or organizing your closet, doing the more tedious work

of organizing your speech is an activity you will appreciate most once it is done. From the very

beginning stages of organization, like choosing a topic and writing a thesis statement, to deciding

how best to arrange the main points of your speech and outlining, getting organized is one step

toward an effective and engaging speech or presentation.
Had Meg, the student mentioned in the opening anecdote, taken some time to work through the

organizational process, it is likely her speech would have gone much more smoothly when she

finished her introduction. It is very common for beginning speakers to spend a great deal of their

time preparing catchy introductions, fancy PowerPoint presentations, and nice conclusions, which

are all very important. However, the body of any speech is where the speaker must make effective

arguments, provide helpful information, entertain, and the like, so it makes sense that speakers

should devote a proportionate amount of time to these areas as well. By following this chapter, as

well as studying the other chapters in this text, you should be prepared to craft interesting,

compelling, and organized speeches.
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chapter review questions and activities
review questions
1. Name three questions you should ask yourself when selecting a topic.
2. What is the difference between a general and specific purpose statement? Write examples of each

for each of these topics: dog training, baking a cake, climate change.
3. How does the thesis statement differ from the specific purpose statement?
4. Which speech organization style arranges points by time? Which one arranges points by direction?

Which one arranges points according to a five-step sequence?
5. Which speech organization styles are best suited for persuasive speeches?
6. Define signpost. What are three types of signposts?
7. What is the correct format for a speech outline?
activities
1. Reverse outlining.
During a classmate’s speech, pay special attention to the organization style that he or she

employs. As they give their speech, try to construct an outline based on what you hear. If your

classmate has followed many of the suggestions provided in this and other chapters, you should be

able to identify and replicate the structure of the speech. Compare your “reverse” outline with the

speaking outline. Discuss any areas of discrepancy.
2. Topic Proposal Workshop.
Often, selecting a topic can be one of the most challenging steps in developing a speech for your

class. Prior to class, review the textbox “Questions for selecting a topic” on page 8-2. Answer

these questions and choose a tentative topic. Write up a short paragraph about your topic that

describes its importance, why it interests you, and what you would like to convey to an audience

about your proposed topic. In class, meet with two or three additional students to discuss and

workshop each of your topics. As you discuss your topic with others, jot down what questions they

had, what aspects they seemed to find most interesting, and any suggestions your peers might have.

Once the workshop is complete, proceed with narrowing your topic to something manageable.
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glossary
Chronological Speech
A speech in which the main points are delivered according to when they happened and could be traced

on a calendar or clock.
Comparative Speech
A speech in which two or more objects, ideas, beliefs, events, places, or things are compared or

contrasted with one another.
Causal Speech
A speech that informs audience members about causes and effects that have already happened.
General Purpose Statement
The overarching goal of a speech; for instance, to inform, to persuade, to inspire, to celebrate,

to mourn, or to entertain.
Internal Previews
Short descriptions of what a speaker will do and say during a speech; may be at the beginning and

within the body of a speech.
Main Points
The key pieces of information or arguments contained within a talk or presentation.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
An organization style that is designed to motivate the audience to take a particular action and is

characterized by a five-step sequence: (1) attention, (2) need, (3) satisfaction, (4),

visualization, and (5) action appeal.
Organizational Styles
Templates for organizing the main points of a speech that are rooted in traditions of public

discourse and can jumpstart the speechwriting process.
Outline
Hierarchal textual arrangement of all the various elements of a speech.
Parallel Structure
Main points that are worded using the same structure.
Preparation Outline
A full-sentence outline that is used during the planning stages to flesh out ideas, arrange main

points, and to rehearse the speech; could be used as a script if presenting a manuscript style

speech.
Problem-Solution Speech
A speech in which problems and solutions are presented alongside one another with a clear link

between a problem and its solution.
Refutation Speech
A speech that anticipates the audience’s opposition, then brings attention to the tensions between

the two sides, and finally refutes them using evidential support.
Rhetorical Situation
According to Lloyd Bitzer, “a complex of pe