Understanding what men experience in female dominated occupations is significant based on the same reasons why the experience of women in male dominant fields is and has continued to be important(Cross&Bagilhole, 2000).In the United States, men acquire less than half of undergraduate and graduate degree compared to women. This gap has continued to increase(Jacobs, 1993).Besides, economic recession has led to the loss of traditional male dominated jobs. Equality between men and women is prevailing. Men have increased in female dominated occupations. They are becoming nurses, teachers and social workers e.tc. Forexample; statistics show that between 2000- 2010, the number of male nurses doubled. Currently, there are more than 10% of men in the nursing profession(Jacobs, 1993). Is this due to anincrease in the pursuit of gender equality? This phenomenon may be caused by erosion of stereotypes in female dominated jobs. Women are also entering into men dominated jobs.There much interest in the research about some men (majority does not) who enter into female dominated occupations. Research by Williams (2013) provides a better understanding of men’s experience in female-concentrated occupations. There is no much research on why men enter into female occupations. Few studies have explored the experiences of men in female-dominated occupations. This paper discusses the experiences of men in female dominated occupations. This is based on topic such as how men overcome challenges in such fields and experiences with the ‘glass escalator’ or the ‘glass ceiling.’The discussion is based on Williams (2013), ‘the glass escalator’ and Simpsons (2014), ‘masculinity at work.’The paper also focuses on studies from other researchers.

The Glass Escalator

Women who work in men- dominated jobs encounter what Williams(2013) calls a ‘glass ceiling.’ This glass ceiling prevents them from ascending to top jobs in the organization or company. Top jobs are reserved for men as they are believed to have leadership capabilities compared to women, though this is not true. However, one may think that since women do not lead in men-dominated jobs, it is vice versa for men who work in female dominated jobs. However, this is not so, Simpson introduced the term ‘glass escalator’ which enabled men to lead even in female-dominated professions such as elementary/primary teaching, nursing, social work and librarianship. However, this term may not be applicable to the 21^st century’ inequality in the workplace.

The ‘glass escalator’ is about the ‘hidden advantages’ that men enjoy in female-dominated professions(Williams 2013). However, the workplace has changed over the last two decades and this has also changed the understanding of gender inequality in the workplace. Many sociologists argue that women are disadvantaged in the workplace because of what is referred to as the ‘token status.’ Very few women occupy top positions and the few who manage to ascend the ladder experience marginalization in terms of boundary heightening, increased visibilityand role encapsulation. They are thus excluded from top responsibilities and positions of power. Previously, gender discrimination was not the reason why women were excluded from leadership positions, but because of numerical rarity. Tokenism received critique from men working in female dominated professions. Also, numerical rarity does not have negative effects on such men. The reason why men still lead in female dominated professions is because of their masculinity. Their masculinity qualities are highly regarded more than the qualities associated with femininity/women. Token status enables men to benefit from professions such as social work, librarianship, nursing and teaching.

Focusing on men in female dominated jobs leads us to understanding the advantages men generally enjoy in the workplace regardless of their workplace. In order to address this, previous research argued on the deficiencies and barriers of women, leaving important questions like what advantages men receive and what makes them so great. In female dominated positions, men were regarded as more better and competent than their women counterparts. As a result, men were assigned higher administrative jobs and specialties with higher pay. Everyone in the workplace that is, coworkers, clients and supervisors understood this concept of masculinity privilege.This is what Simpson labels as the ‘glass escalator’ which is the opposite of the ‘glass ceiling’experienced by women in men-concentrated professions.

Not all men in female dominated occupation enjoyed the ‘glass escalator’ benefits. Some faced discrimination especially those who work in children specialties such as children’s librarianship or teaching in a kindergarten. Such men faced negative stereotypes about male sexuality. They were questioned about pedophilia and other possible motives. Such discrimination is harmful. However, it is understandable to some extent based on the concept of masculinity. It was aimed at pushing such men to seek higher paying jobs since such jobs had low pay. They were expected to work in more prestigious professions. Those who persisted to stay at such jobs had to struggle and give a deaf ear to such stereotypes. This is the origin of the moving glass escalator metaphor. Though the glass escalator term was invented 20 years ago, much has not changed in terms of gender inequality in the four female dominated professions (librarianship, social work, teaching and nursing). Statistics of men in female dominated professions from 1975 to 2011 show that there is an increase in men in the nursing profession, the number has doubled. However, in librarianship and social work, the percentage of men has dropped over the last two decades. The representation of men in the elementary school is not definedsince the statistics have included middle school teaching. Gender discrimination concurs with wage gap. Men enjoy higher income than women in female-dominated professions. However, the wage-difference is notable, but not large. We can conclude that gender inequality is experienced in both men and female dominated positions, women being the most undermined.

The glass escalator and the 21^st century workplace

The traditional work organizations required workers to be loyal to their single employer. This loyalty was rewarded with pay rise, retirement pensions, promotions and increased benefits. Traditional work was hierarchical. Power, income and prestige increased at each level up to the top executivepositions. During the research on the glass escalator, the traditional model of work was in existence and workers in the four female dominatedprofessions were required to have their appropriate credentials, obtain an entry-level position and job training. Workers proved their value in the organization through handwork, loyal service and long hours. In return, they obtained positions of authority, higher pay and status. The traditional model of work was biased. Men were highly favored than women. Since rewards were obtained in respect to worker’s devotion to their work, this discriminated against women who had other family obligations to attend to/accommodate. Also, managers drew organizational charts which valued men masculinity and devalued women femininity. This resulted to the glass escalator for men and glass ceiling for women. Other than working and being loyal to a single employer, workers today expect to change employers frequently in search of better job opportunities. Employers are also turning to part-time and temporary employeeswho perform the work which was previously undertaken by full-time and permanent employees(Hakim, 2000).Loyalty has been replaced by adaptability and flexibility. This is what HumanResource Management terms as ‘boundaryless’career(Arthur, 1994). The nature of job has also changed, organizations are less hierarchical. Work is now organized in teams who work on time-bounded projects and are assessed on outcome and results. This model of work organization is referred to as ‘neoliberal’(Campbell &Ove, 2001).

The neoliberal model presents opportunities for professional growth, personal fulfillment and technology innovation. This model is praised by feminists due to its flexibility and compatibility with women’s non-linear job paths(Hakim, 2000).However, most of those who benefit from this model are shareholders, executives and the financial industry. Other workers are high-tech personnel with special skills. For other workers, this model has led to salary stagnation, increased job responsibility, increased stress and job insecurity. Neoliberalism is present in the four professions since they depend on government for support. The government has slashed their funds and attacked their unions.Gender inequality is experienced in both traditional and neoliberal models of work organization. Women are fighting to be on the rise just like men. Also, in big companies like oil and gas industries, women and men are graduating with masters degrees and getting equal employment in such companies(DiMaggio, 2001). This makes the metaphors of glassescalator and glass ceiling too static to address the gender inequality happening in today’s workplace.

Masculinity at work

Simpson (2004) explores the experiences and motivations of men in non-traditional occupations and the results of the career option for gender identity. Organizations have been centers of defining work in terms of masculinity and femininity. For example ‘token women’ are very disadvantaged by their marginal status through pessimistic stereotyping(Simpson 2004, 352). Men on the other hand reap positive outcomes from their managerial potential. Early studies on organizations and gender assumed men and masculinity to be a normal case againstwomen. These studies have been criticized and have further led to what is referred to as hegemonic masculinity were men, due to their masculinity, are guaranteed a dominant position(Alvesson, &Due Billing, (1997).Masculinity in the workplace has been explained through three frameworks; the psychoanalysis framework which focuses on psychic investment that people have in a dominant gendered and sexual discourse. Here, masculinity is defined as the repudiation of the feminine and a flight from women. The social relationsframework explores ways in which social practices are structured as sets of socialrelation. Here, masculinity is viewed as a set of distinctive practices,for example, the significance of father-son relationship in the construction of masculinity. The third framework explores the structure of social relations in the form of production, power and emotional relations and how such relation patterns form the ‘gender regime’ within an organization(Ridgeway &Tamar, 2013). Therefore, gender is viewed as a social practice and masculinity as anarrangement of that practice.

Gender inequality between women and men in terms of ‘women’ and ‘men’ work is caused by gender discourses and ideologies. Such ideologies promote sexual definition of labor. Notions held at the workplace are central to masculine identities. Institutions are major sites for definition of what being a man means. This affects the men and women who work in gender atypical places and who challenge the stereotypes and assumptions concerning female and male work. Bradley(1993) suggeststhat women penetrate into male jobs than vice versa. Also, men who work in women’s work upset such gender assumptions so that he isn’t viewed as a ‘real’ man. Research has also been conducted on the challenges that women face when they work in male dominated professions. Based on token status, such women face discrimination and bias in an institution where group culture and various processes are controlled by the dominant male group. Gender imbalance, according to Simpson (2004), limits career progress, creates a hostile working environment and increases career barriers for women. On the other hand, token men reap positive benefits from women dominated occupations. They benefit through the assumption of having a careerist attitude and leadership skills. For example, male nurses usually ascend the career ladder more easily than women,this is despite the belief that nursing is a woman’ profession. Men have monopolized positions of power and are rewarded with higher pay and other benefits(Williams, 2012).

Men also face difficulties in emotional labor such as social work, teaching and nursing. This is because such work may call for specialties that are possessed by women. This may create troubles for men who question their suitability, competence, sexuality and masculinity if they adopt a feminine approach. For example, in primary school teaching, men face a double edged sword problem. They may have a hiring advantage due to their male bonding and masculine interest in sports. However, such features may distance them from female staff. In this regard, how do make workers resolve the feminine nature of their job with the needs of a ‘hegemonic masculinity’ gender regime?Lupton (2000)found out that men who work in female-dominated professions fear stigmatization and feminization. In order to avoid this, such jobs should be reconstructed to minimize their feminine nature. Also, men may engage in compensatory gendered activities in order to restore their masculine dominating position. For example, Williams (1992) indicates that a man may give emphasis to the male element and downplay the female element of the occupation. Men in women’s occupations have to deal with tension between the dominantdiscourse of male masculinity and femininecharacter of their job.

Summary

Considerable evidence shows that men who work in female dominated occupations benefit more than their women counterparts. They progress to senior positions more quickly than women; the glass escalator. This is evident in institutions where a higher percentage of men are in the top positions. For example, the Department of Education and Skills (2001) shows that in primary school teaching, men comprise 14% of all teachers. However, they comprise 41 % of school head teachers. Men also have an advantage in remuneration. Williams (2013)study shows that men are paid more than women in female-concentrated professions. But, their pay is much less compared to what men in male dominated occupations earn. Though men in female occupations maintain their pay advantages over women, they remain less disadvantaged in relation to other men in ‘male’ jobs. Men who enter into female dominated jobs also encounter challenges to masculinity. Working in a female occupation for example elementary teaching limits their ability to use work identity to conform masculine identity. Also, by working with women, they are they lose opportunities of enforcing masculinity in the workplace. Besides, men also fear stigmatization and feminization through working in a female-dominated environment. Furthermore, they face being viewed as homosexuals since they undertake an occupation which is viewed as female’ by the society.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed the experiences of men in female-dominated occupations. Their masculinity is valued more than the femininity of women. They are believed to have potential leadership abilities. The traditional framework on which men’s masculinity has also been discussed. Men reap benefits from their masculinity. They are favored in the workplace and enjoy rewards such as top positions and higher pay. However, many involved in female dominated occupations also face difficulties. They often fear feminization since they lack opportunities to exhibit their masculine nature in their working environment. They also face stigmatization. Might these challenges be equal to those faced by women in male dominated jobs? Bradley (1993, p14) states that compromised femininity is still a possible female identity. The paper has also discussed about how men can overcome the difficulties they face in women dominated occupations. When they enter into female-dominated jobs, it can be said that their occupational identity and masculinity are misaligned. One way is to reconstruct the occupation to fit their masculinity notions. The second way is to emphasize and enact a different masculinity. These methods will help them align with the female jobs.

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