Theory is can be simply referred to as an ‘explanation.’ Theories are found in nearly everything humans do.  In regard to explaining crime, everyone usually has his/her opinion. However, such opinions may not qualify to be scientific theories. Many of them are based on traditions and people’s perceptions.  Since 19^th century up to the present, different people have different explanations of crime and race/ethnicity. There are theories that have been put in placeto explain about racial/ethnic groups and their involvement in crime. For example, biological theories look at physical characteristics or genes to explain crime. There are also sociologicaltheories that are based on social structure, Culture and social process and other theories. This paper focuses on key theoretical traditions that have dominated discussions about ethnicity / race and crime, from the 19^thcentury to-date.

Biological theoretical traditions

Following Charles Darwin’s,The Origin of Species and Descent of Man which were published after the mid 18^thc, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian studied and concluded the importance of race in the explanation of crime. In his first work, The Criminal Man, he attributed the occurrence of crime to ethnicity. He referred to American Indians, Africans and Orientals as being criminals. By the time that Lombroso’s works were translated into English, the notion that crime was biologically determined hadalready been spread among Americans (Back &Solomon, 2000, p9).Although such notions were vigorously challenged, such ideas were dominant in the 19^th and 20^th-century literature.  This gave rise to the Racist Eugenics Movement.  With theenhancement in immigration to the United States, such ideas were also applied to the unwelcome arrivals. With the overrepresentation of African Americans and other immigrants in the crime statistics, racial and ethnic differences explained such differences.  Also, during the year 1977, a study conducted by two criminologists indicated that a person’s intelligence determined criminal behaviour.  It was concluded that students with low intelligence performed poorly in school and, as a result, they were likely to engage in illegal activity. In this, they associated crime with ethnicity/race in that blacks usuallyscored lower in Intelligent Quotient tests and thus more likely to commit more crimes(Tubman & Heather, 2009, p52). However, theory of related IQ, race and crime was not and cannot be believed. This is because up-to-date;there are still questions on what IQ tests measure. Also, the tests are prone to class and cultural biases. Furthermore, if lack of intelligence is connected to crime, why do persons with high IQs commit political and white-collar crime?Besides, there is no proof that IQ differences are genetic or environment related.  Today, theoretical traditions based on biological approaches incorporate both environmental and biological factors. As such, theorists define this approach as biosocial criminology. It has been noted that from a biosocial approach, current theorists directly or indirectly link race with crime. However, this has been rejected by theories that are founded on sociological perspectives.

r/K selection theory

This is one of the most-controversial criminological theories that relate race and crime.  This theory was brought about by Wilson to explain the decline in plants and animals and population growth.  This gene-based theory connects many of the diversities among races including crime patterns and migrations out of Africa. In 1999, Rushton, professor of psychology at western Ontario University agreed with the hypothesis that all humans have an origin in Africa (Cools, Ruyver, & Kimpe, 2009, p98). He contends that there was a divide in the population before humans left Africa. This split is the reason there are whites, blacks and Asians. Those who were left in Africa are known as black people and were subjected to deadly diseases and droughts. As a result, they died young. Those who migrated to Eurasia had to deal with tasks that required greater intelligence and were mentally demanding. These tasks included gathering and storing food, making clothes, providing shelter and many others.  Part from lower growth rates, they had lower levels of sex hormones. This resulted to less aggression and sexual potency as well as more family longevity and stability. r/K selection theory explains the relation between race and crime in that, impulsive behaviour, aggression, low self-control, lack of rule following and low intelligence are connected with criminals.  Black people fall under the r-strategy. Asians and whites, who are not related to crime, belong to the K-selected organisms that have the capability to struggle for limited resources in a stable environment. This theory can be criticised in that Rushton fails to consider sociological factors.  Variables such as discrimination and socioeconomic status are not taken into account. Also, in this 21^stcentury, there are few pure races due to interbreeding between the whites and the blacks. Also, if the white people are not aggressive, how can their aggression during colonization be explained? Also, why are they currently involved in violence and wars across the globe? From a personal perspective, whites are the global aggressors.

Sociological perspective of race and crime

Social disorganization theory

The sociological perspective of explaining ethnicity and crime is based on social disorganization theory, which relates crime with conditions such as fluctuating populations, significant numbers of families on welfare, family renting, several racial groups in one area, high infant mortality rates, high truancy rates, high employment rates, high numbers of negro heads of families, large numbers of condemned buildings and a high percentage of foreign-born families(Guerrero, 2009, p762-763).Since the 19^th century, the viability of social disorganization, especially in urban areas is still explored. During the year 1987, it was found out that male blacks were associated with economic deprivation, joblessness and violent crime.  This indirect association was mediated by family disruption that is, the occurrence of female-headed families. Based on this research and others, a theory was postulated by Sampson and Wilson that explained race and crime using cultural and structural constructs.

[Our] essential thesis is that macro social blueprints of residential inequity give rise to the social separation and ecological attentiveness of the truly disadvantaged, which in turn results to structural obstacles and cultural adaptations that weaken social organization and hence the control of crime. This thesis is positioned in what is actually an old thought in criminology that has been disregarded in the race and crime debate—the importance of communities (Piquero &Brame, 2011, p399)

Theory known as the racial invariance thesis,states that blacks and whites live in considerable different areas.  It was found out that many AfricanAmericans live in areas concentrated with poverty. This leads to social isolation.  They lack contact or sustained interaction with institutions and individuals that represent mainstream society.The socially isolated individuals develop their norms within their areas(Wright, 2009, p45).The theory has been applied to populations such as Native Americans and to nonurban areas where certain communities such as the black Americans and Indian Americans lived.  Even today, crime is associated with races that are prone to poverty. In the United States, most crimes are believed to be committed by blacks and due to the notion that such races are criminals, they serve long terms in prison compared to the white ones. Many unrecognized and isolated races are associated with crime.

Collective efficacy

This theory was brought about in 1997 to determine why urban groups are different in terms of crime levels. The study confirmed that there is an association between crime and collective efficacy present in a specific community.  Collective efficacy was defined as a “social cohesion among neighbours joined with their enthusiasm to mediate on behalf of the universal good” (Anderson, 2014, p298). Communities where people care for one another have a less likelihood of crime. Collective efficacy has been supported among African Americans. Just like social disorganization, collective efficacy addresses high crime in urban areas. Since not all African Americans dwell in urban areas where there is high crime rate, people wonder whether those who live in middle-class areas also face high crime rates than those in similar located white areas. In order to understand this, Pattillo conducted a study in 1998 that found out that middle-class black areas experienced high crime rates and economic instability. Also, many black dwellers that advanced to middle-class areas were unstable and struggled to maintain their status. In some cases, they engage in crime in order to do so. In order to reach the status of the whites, the middle-class blacks engage in both legal and illegal networks.  Another recent research conducted by Hassett-walker in 2009 and 2010 investigated crime among middle-class blacks and found out that peer influence was also a major contributor to middle-class crime.  Though this theory has been supported by many, it fails to explain how some groups such as the Jewish community and Asians maintain low levels of crime and criminal behaviour though they live in areas that are categorized as socially disorganized. Theory fails to explain why most juveniles in such areas to not become criminals.

Strain theory of ethnicity/race and crime

Another key theoretical tradition that has dominated discussions about ethnicity / race and crime is the strain/anomie theory postulated by Merton in 1938 (Greene&Gabbidon, 2011, p91).  He showed that in every society, there are culturally defined goals, interests and purposes.  Also, the theory also suggested that these goals are achieved through acceptable models.  From the perspective of the American society and in pursuit of the American dream, Merton’s states that some people turn to other means in order to secure this cultural goal. When this theory is applied to race and crime, it focuses on African Americans where;

Certain elements of the Negro inhabitants have incorporated the dominant caste’s standards of pecuniary achievement and advancement, but they also recognize that social rise is at present constrained to their own class almost exclusively. The forces upon the Negro which would otherwise develop from the structural inconsistencies we have observed are hence not identical to those upon inferior class Whites ( (Greene&Gabbidon, 2011, p280)

Similarly to the 19^th c when this theory was brought by, today in the United States, African Americans experience strain unlike others in the American society. Regardless of how much they struggle to achieve the American dream, they cannot legitimately reach the status of the whites. Many of them maintain lower aspirations and have resigned to achieving lower levels of success. Such a situation likely contributes to the strain that result in some African Americans turning to crimes.  This theory cannot be believed since, during the research, only white American participants were used, and there is likelihoodthat they may have provided false answers.  Also, today, though this theory is to some extend true, African Americans are still committed and worker harder to achieve the American dream (Greene&Gabbidon, 2011, p390).  Though most of them are unemployed, and others earn low incomes, they are still prepared to work harder to succeed economically and be like the whites. In addition, many of them have succeeded and are just like the whites. Martin Luther King Jnr’s vision of equal America is almost coming true. A common example is that the United States is now headed by a black American. This shows that African Americans are no more associated with crime anymore.Rather, they are striving to be like the whites. This theory does not clarify the occurrence of white collar and government offences.

General strain theory and race-crime relationship

In 1992, Robert Agnew expanded Merton’s strain theory. The theory explains that various stressors or strains increase the occurrence of criminal activity. Strains are divided into three categories; the failure to accomplish positively valued goals, the withdrawal of a positivelyappreciated stimuli and the presentation of pessimistic stimuli(Peck, 2011, p45).   Some strains are likely to cause crime compared to others. Such include; divorce, parental rejection, death of a family member, neglect, child abuse, residing in low social-economic status communities, criminal victimization, discrimination, prejudice, homelessness, abusive peer relations and negative school experiences. Today, little research explains the connection between general strain theory, race and crime.  In 2008, Kaufman stated that general strain theory can explain minorities’ overrepresentation in criminal behaviour. This is because some races are exposed to disproportionate amounts and diverse types of stressful and strain situations. Comparing African Americans with whites, Kaufmanbelieved that African Americans experience differences in some types of strain; family, economic, discrimination, education, criminal victimization and community.  More particularly, racial diversity in strains and stressful situations that cause crime include dissimilar levels in unemployment, exposure to poverty, parental strain, negative relationships with teachers, harsh and inconsistent discipline, witnessing violence, economic disadvantage, prejudice and racial discrimination. Since general strain theory explains why some individuals become violent (McNulty & Bellair, 2010, p711), the same theory can be applied to explain why certain groups may experience more or diverse types of stressors that led to criminal behaviour.  Agnew argues that minority groups such as Hispanics and Americans of Africa origin are more likely to be involved in serious crime compared to their white counterparts.  For example, some strains that have affected Hispanics and African Americans more than the whites are social environment stressors (social isolation, segregation and poverty), economic stress, criminal victimization, racial discrimination and educational strain. Based on the general strain theory, it can be stated that African Americans commit crime more than the whites because theyexperience social environment strains that can lead to criminal behaviour. Experiences such as working in the secondary labour market, victim of abuse, racial discrimination and criminal victimization make Hispanics and African Americans commit crime (Greene&Gabbidon, 2011, p367).

Differences in criminal behaviour between races are also influenced by some structural constructs and exclusive social conditions that are more likely to affect Hispanics and African Americans more than whites.Americans of Africa origin are more likely to live in poverty and also live in high poverty neighbourhoods (Greene&Gabbidon, 2011, 369).This is because of historical effects of racial segregation, social isolation and discrimination. Effects or residential discrimination and segregation on minorities can lead to differential involvement in criminal behaviours. Theweakness of this theory is that it does not explain the crimes committed by those who belong to the middle and upper classes.

Sub-cultural theory of crime

This theory assumes that some unique groups in the society socialize their children to believe that particular activities, that infringe conservative law, are positive and good ways of behaving(Clevenger, 2009, p781). Though such groups or classes are rare to find, it may be that certain subcultures or isolated groups conform into a dissimilar set of norms than the conservative, middle-class set of values. The first research in the sub-cultural theory was done by Ferracuti and Wolfgang in 1967 where the violent themes of a group of inner-city, from Philadelphia were examined.  A more recent research proposed by Anderson focused on AfricanAmericans. Because of deprived conditions in which they live in, African Americans feel a sense of isolation, hopelessness and despair(Anderson, 1999, p23).Though many African Americans believe in the middle-class set of values, such values have no weight on the street especially among the male youth in urban areas. Anderson asserts that the code of the streets is to demand respect and maintain one’s reputation. When such young males feel disrespected, they retaliate by a physical attack. Thecontrol of one’s immediate environment, as well as masculinity,istreasured features. It is the only thing that they can control based on the conditions in which they live in that is, environment characterized by poverty, unemployment and other life injustices(Gunter, 2010, p80).Though this theory was applicable during the earlier years, it does not fully apply to the present.For instance, in the United States, there are no large groups of people that do not conform to the middle-class societal norms. Most parents in the lower class tend to teach their children on how to adhere to conventional law in respect to hard work, respect for authority and delayed gratification.   This model is based on a different culture from what exists today. Every parent tries to show the right way to his/her child. It is true that there are gangs or small groups of people that have sub-cultural norms. However, this does not indicate that they make up a different culture in the society. Presently, if there are sub-cultural groups in the United States they form a small percentage of the population. As such, the sub-cultural perspective of criminality is negated.

Theoretical traditions based on conflict theory

Conflict theory is one of the most-popular theoretical frameworks that explain the relationship between race and crime (Bowling & Phillips, 2002, p20-21). This theory has some seeds in many of the above discussed theories.  Conflict theory has some origin in the works of George Simmel, KarlMarx and Max Weber, who have been recognized for the development of the theory.  Conflict theory is the sum of many different theories that focus on struggles between groups or individuals in regard to power differences. In regard to race and crime, conflict theory focuses on whether law enforcementandpunishment distribution are done in a discriminatory way. Though gender and social class are important to investigate, conflicts theorists centre on the way white power structure administers justice. Du Bois, an early observer of race and crime incorporated conflict analysis in his work (Sims, 2009, p73). Du Bois talks of how states strategically enacted black codes, which snared blacks into the criminal justice systems so they could be returned to the labour force, which was important in maintaininginfluence and advantagedstatus of southern plantation owners. As such, Du Bois concluded that the crime among black, was not international but, as a result of the dire social conditions they experienced. In explaining crime, he stated that the discrimination, lynching, segregation and attitudes of the courts led to African American criminality.  These matters speak directly to conflict theory.  In the present, conflict theory is still a source of criminality. Due tothe struggle for power, social classes have occurred. Those in the lower class feel that they are segregated and discriminated. Racial discrimination has led to judgments that are out of line(Sims, 2009, p77). In order to survive and feel that they are part of the society, these people strive to survive at all means. In critiquing this theory, it can be said that conflict theory does not consider personal differences. People have different personalities despite similar social class or environment. Not all discriminated or oppressed people will respond to becoming criminals.

The colonial model

The colonial model is another important theoretical framework that constitutes to the discussion of race/ethnicity and crime.  This work was founded by Frantz Fanon. He used this model to examine the relations between whites and blacks.  Black power movement intellectuals largely applied this theory to crime. It was applied to the conditions of the African Americans.This theory was based on the aspect of colonialism where the term was defined as anestablishment of domination over geographically external political unit, most of them populated by people of diverse culture and race. The colonizers exploit land, raw materials, labour and other resources of the colonized nation.  Also, colonialism is characterized by difference in autonomy, power and political status.  This model was applied to NativeAmericans. In Mirande’s work of 1987, Gringo Justice, he reviewed the historical treatment of Mexican Americans by the criminal justice system (Barak, Flavin & Leighton, 2011, p12). In formulating the gringo justice theory, he integrated the conflict theory with the colonial model. Though Mexican and NativeAmericans were not colonized, they experienced internal colonialism which results when the foreign control of a territory or state is eliminated, and the exploitation and control of subordinate groups is passed to the dominant group within the newly created society. This situation is similar to the traditional colonization process which is characterized by a system based on cultural imposition, racism, cultural recreation and disintegration and governance by the dominant power.  These characteristics make the colonized people feel that they are alienated. Therefore, this results to crime and delinquency or the desire to protest or assimilate.

Austin was among the first people to test the theory. Through use violence rates before and after decolonization of the Caribbean Island of St. Vincent, he determined where the rate of crime declined after the removal of the British colony. Though his results were positive, he also found that there was availability of guns, and this could have influenced his findings. In 2000, Tatum also tested the theory(Krohn, Lizotte& Hall, 2010, p54). He added propositions to the model. He included the association between race, class and oppression that is, how class and race are connected to the availability of social support and alienation issues.  Basing his test on the data from African, Mexican Americans and white juniors and seniors at two high schools, she found partial support for the model. The colonial model is applicable to racial groups who have experienced colonization especially native, African and Mexican Americans.  In critiquing this model, it can be stated that two people exposed to the same oppression can respond differently. Therefore, the model does not recognize different adaptations.  The colonial model also ignores class issues which are a major drive to the crime.

There are other controversial theories that explain the relationship between ethnicity and crime. These are structural-cultural theory, critical theory and crime thesis theory.

Structural-cultural theory

This theory was proposed by Oliver in 1984 to explain criminality among black males. He explained black males and their tough masculinity. He stated that due to racial oppression, black males exhibit toughness, manipulation, sexual conquest and thrill-seeking. They exhibit such behaviours in order to overcome low self-esteem and other negative feelings that emanate from their failure to enact the traditional masculine role(Cools, Ruyver, & Kimpe, 2009, p59). This leads to social problems in African American community. This theory fails in some way in that it is not yet ascertained whether low self-esteem contributes to social problems among African Americans males.

Critical race theory

This theory was postulated by Richard Delgado, Derrick Bell and other scholars. It emanated in 1970s from the critical legal studies movement. The theory parallels with radical criminology and has proved to be useful in explaining race and crime.  Currently, critical race theory has been popular in social science circles (Brinkerhoff, Ortega&Weitz, 2013, p101). This theory has two perspectives; the first one is to understand how law is used to maintain white supremacy and continues to oppress black people. The second perspective is to counter or stop the use of law to maintain white supremacy. Critical theory theorists are concerned about laws and practices that directly impact ethnic and racial minorities.  In addition to the highlighted perspectives, this theory has several tenets; first, racism is ever present in the American society, and therefore, it is a daily occurrence.  Secondly, whites benefit from racism and therefore have little incentive to get rid of it, a condition known as interest convergence. Thirdly, race is a socially manufactured and constructed classification. Critical theorists are concerned with group racialization. Concern is expressed about the ways that the dominant society racializes minority groups at dissimilar times.  Though this theory tries to give information about today’s racial discrimination and engagement in crime, it is based on personal narratives and storytelling which drifts away from the objective analysis.  Others have criticised it as an academic whining about minorities and women. However, this theory is still a standard legal theory especially among minority legal scholars and women.  The theory is also currently used by theorists as a foundation in studying race and crime.

Summary & Conclusion

Theories explain certain issues. Almost all society facets operate under a theory. Criminological theories explain the occurrence of crime. For many years, race and crime have been linked. As such, there are theoretical explanations for racial disparities. Theories are categorized into sociological and biological. One of the earliest theorists to attach biology, ethnicity and crime in his work was Cesare Lombroso. In the 19^th century, theoristsexamined the biology of African, native and Asian Americans to provide areaction to the question of why some ethnic groups and races commit more crimes than others. However, this has changed over the years. The biological approach to race and crime declined, and the sociological perspective was born. This perspective was adopted by Du Bois and is still used today in studying race and crime.  Social disorganization is among the most-popular theories used to explain race and crime. Theorists believe that urban crime is caused by the environment rather than the person. In other words, where a person lives plays an important role in his/her criminality than who he/she is. Both strain and general strain theory focus on the challenges that are faced by minorities in the American society as well as in their individual lives (Guerrero, 2009, p762-763). Strain theory emphasizes on economic challenges faced by minorities while general strain theory offers a discussion of many societal stressorsthatadd to offending among ethnic and racial groups. The creation of Anderson’s code of the street has enabled sub-cultural theory researchers to better understand how residents navigate inner-city communities. The code of the street is based on respect.  Conflict theory has been popularly used in studying race and crime. This theory explains that power differences in the society, between whites and racial/ethnic minorities is regarded important in understanding why minorities are overrepresented in the criminal justice system.Scholars have also begun to re-examine the role of colonization in race, crime and justice. Though there are numerous theories that explain race and crime, there is no a one theory that best explains the relationship. Though in the past scholars used biology of black Americans to explain this relation, biology approach bore the sociological approach which is still used in studying race and crime. Many of the highlighted theories focus on race and crime among African Americans. Since the research on crime among the Latinos has risen, theorists should test the existing theorists to establish if they are applicable for other ethnic/racial groups.After viewing the explanation of theories on criminal behaviour, it is safe to state that though research methodologies have become sophisticated, similar ideas about race and crime, brought about across many decades, are still popular in the 21^st century.

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